STRIDE: Gender

Nicole Thomas, Jill Bystydzienski, & Anand Desai, 2014
Higher education institutions often use mentoring to socialize faculty members into their academic disciplines and to retain them. Mentoring can also be used to change organizational culture to meet the needs of historically marginalized faculty members. In this article we focus on peer mentoring circles for women STEM faculty at a large, midwestern research university. Participants reported diverse, context-dependent mentoring needs and expressed interest in communicating issues raised in the circles to administrative leaders. A workshop for circle participants and administrators led subsequently to college-wide teams that addressed problems identified in the circles. We conclude that peer mentoring as a means to facilitate institutional change has great potential.

David I Miller, & Jonathan Wai, 2015
For decades, research and public discourse about gender and science have often assumed that women are more likely than men to "leak" from the science pipeline at multiple points after entering college. We used retrospective longitudinal methods to investigate how accurately this "leaky pipeline" metaphor has described the bachelor's to Ph.D. transition in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields in the U.S. since the 1970s. Among STEM bachelor's degree earners in the 1970s and 1980s, women were less likely than men to later earn a STEM Ph.D. However, this gender difference closed in the 1990s. Qualitatively similar trends were found across STEM disciplines. The leaky pipeline metaphor therefore partially explains historical gender differences in the U.S., but no longer describes current gender differences in the bachelor's to Ph.D. transition in STEM. The results help constrain theories about women's underrepresentation in STEM. Overall, these results point to the need to understand gender differences at the bachelor's level and below to understand women's representation in STEM at the Ph.D. level and above. Consistent with trends at the bachelor's level, women's representation at the Ph.D. level has been recently declining for the first time in over 40 years.

Sue V Rosser, 2010
In Gendered Innovations in Science and Engineering, Londa Schiebinger (2008) gives a succinct and insightful analysis of three levels at which policies in federal agencies have impacted gender and science: (1) research support to increase the participation of women in science; (2) transformation of the structures of institutions to make them more accessible and friendly to women scientists; and (3) reconceptualization of research to include women and gender in its focus and analysis of results. She points out that most agencies, including the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) have done quite well at level 1, and that NIH and some of the international agencies, such as the European Union (EU) have begun to focus on level 3, with explicit policies requiring gender and sex differences in focus and analyses (Schiebinger, 2008). In contrast, NSF has done little with level 3, but has begun, particularly through its ADVANCE initiative to work on level 2. Building two-way streets that allow cross-talk and sharing of policies between NSF and NIH might permit each to learn from the other about policies that work for gender and science in the area in which each has done pioneering work. Here, I will provide a brief history of women's programs at NSF, which documents the shift in NSF policies over time from a focus on level 1 to level 2.

Nicole Bradick, 2014
Earlier this year, The National Association of Women Lawyers released the results of its National Survey on Retention and Promotion of Women in Law Firms. This annual survey provides sobering news on the state of women at the 200 largest firms in the country, collectively known as BigLaw.

S. Towers, 2008
This case study of a typical U.S. particle physics experiment explores the issues of gender bias and how it affects the academic career advancement prospects of women in the field of physics beyond the postdoctoral level; we use public databases to study the career paths of the full cohort of 57 former postdoctoral researchers on the Run II Dzero experiment to examine if males and females were treated in a gender-blind fashion on the experiment.

Sue Davies, editor
STRIDE committee recommends the following chapters: "Caught Between Two Worlds: Mothers as academics" by Pauline Leonard & Danusia Malina; "Empowering Disabled Women in Higher Education" by Julie Mathews; and "Ivory Towers and Ebony Women: The Experience of Black Women in Higher Education" by Millsam Henry

Peter Schmidt, 2010
When it comes to being rude, disrespectful, or abusive to their professors, students appear most likely to take aim at women, the young, and the inexperienced, a new study has found.

Amani El-Alayli, Ashley A. Hansen-Brown, & Michelle Ceynar, 2018
Although the number of U.S. female professors has risen steadily in recent years, female professors are still subject to different student expectations and treatment. Students continue to perceive and expect female professors to be more nurturing than male professors are. We examined whether students may consequently request more special favors from female professors. In a survey of professors ( n = 88) across the United States, Study 1 found that female (versus male) professors reported getting more requests for standard work demands, special favors, and friendship behaviors, with the latter two mediating the professor gender effect on professors’ self-reported emotional labor. Study 2 utilized an experimental design using a fictitious female or male professor, with college student participants ( n = 121) responding to a scenario in which a special favor request might be made of the professor. The results indicated that academically entitled students (i.e., those who feel deserving of success in college regardless of effort/performance) had stronger expectations that a female (versus male) professor would grant their special favor requests. Those expectations consequently increased students’ likelihood of making the requests and of exhibiting negative emotional and behavioral reactions to having those requests denied. This work highlights the extra burdens felt by female professors. We discuss possible moderators of these effects as well as the importance of developing strategies for preventing them.

Carol A. Isaac, Anna Kaatz, & Molly Carnes, 2012
Aims: There is a large body of evidence-based research illustrating the challenges faced by women who strive in male-typed careers. The purpose of this paper is to outline and integrate a review of the relevant social psychology research into a model of women’s leadership. Proposed Conceptual Argument: As leadership is stereotypically a masculine dimension, women who emulate agentic characteristics will rise into leadership. However, empirical evidence overwhelmingly illustrates the consequences to agentic women whose competence is simultaneously expected and minimized. Findings/Conclusions: This model raises awareness of complex issues in research for women including: the “promotion of ‘male’ females”, “success does not equal competence”, “agentic women sustain reactive opposition”, “the process of self-selection”, “stereotypic threat”, and “equality equals greed”. Because of the ubiquity of these cognitive distortions, awareness may mitigate antagonism and conflict to propel women into leadership roles.

Mary Ann Mason & Marc Goulden, 2004
Even though women make up nearly half of the PhD population, they are not advancing at the same rate as men to the upper ranks of the professoriate; many are dropping out of the race. Our first "Do Babies Matter?" article, published in the November-December 2002 issue of Academe, examined the effect of family formation on academic careers. It was reported, not surprisingly, that babies do matter for men and women PhDs working in academia. They matter a great deal, especially their timing. We found that men with "early" babies--those with a child entering their household within five years of their receiving the PhD--are 38 percent more likely than their women counterparts to achieve tenure (see figure 1). Moreover, the pattern of tenure achievement for women and men stayed almost identical in the humanities, social sciences, and hard sciences. It also held true across four-year institutions, from large research universities to small liberal arts colleges.

John Robst, Jack Keil, & Dean Russo, 1998
The gender composition of faculty is an important issue on many campuses. Substantial efforts are taken by colleges to hire a diverse faculty where women are equitably represented. Several papers suggest that female faculty can act as role models for female students. This issue is particularly emphasized in science and engineering programs. However, empirical research finds mixed support for this hypothesis. We provide a new test of this issue by examining whether female students have higher first-year retention rates when a greater percentage of their classes are taught by female faculty. There is a positive relationship between retention of female students and the percentage of their science and mathematics classes taught by female faculty. Also faculty gender has a greater impact on female students when their classes have few female students. Thus this study provides support for gender-based programs for hiring.

Aimee LaPointe Terosky, KerryAnn O'Meara, & Corbin M Campbell, 2014
In this multimethod, qualitative study we examined associate women professors' sense of agency in career advancement from the rank of associate to full. Defining agency as strategic perspectives or actions toward goals that matter to the professor, we explore the perceptions of what helps and/or hinders a sense of agency in career advancement. Our participants consisted of 16 women associate professors at a major research university who participated in an institutional intervention program designed to enhance sense of agency in career advancement, and a subset of 12 attendees who also participated in a follow-up focus group 6 months later. Participants commonly noted that the influences of workload alignment, interactions with on-campus colleagues, and sense of fit between personal values and institutional promotion criteria constrained their sense of agency in career advancement, while the institutional intervention, self-selected professional networks, and perceived abilities fostered their sense of agency in career advancement. We conclude with individual and institutional level recommendations for policies and practices aimed at enhancing sense of agency perspectives and actions in career development in hopes of better retaining, promoting, and supporting women faculty.

Donna K Ginther, Shulamit, Kahn, & Walter T Schaffer, 2016
Purpose: To analyze the relationship between gender, race/ethnicity, and the probability of being awarded an R01 grant from the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
Method: The authors used data from the NIH Information for Management, Planning, Analysis, and Coordination grants management database for the years 2000–2006 to examine gender differences and race/ethnicity-specific gender differences in the probability of receiving an R01 Type 1 award. The authors used descriptive statistics and probit models to determine the relationship between gender, race/ethnicity, degree, investigator experience, and R01 award probability, controlling for a large set of observable characteristics.
Results: White women PhDs and MDs were as likely as white men to receive an R01 award. Compared with white women, Asian and black women PhDs and black women MDs were significantly less likely to receive funding. Women submitted fewer grant applications, and blacks and women who were new investigators were more likely to submit only one application between 2000 and 2006.
Conclusions: Differences by race/ethnicity explain the NIH funding gap for women of color, as white women have a slight advantage over men in receiving Type 1 awards. Findings of a lower submission rate for women and an increased likelihood that they will submit only one proposal are consistent with research showing that women avoid competition. Policies designed to address the racial and ethnic diversity of the biomedical workforce have the potential to improve funding outcomes for women of color.

editors Clara Mayo & Nancy Henley, 1981
This book addresses two lively and active research communities, those concerned with issues of gender and those dealing with nonverbal behavior. The wide range of professional and popular interest in both these topics convinced us that presentations of current work by researchers who bring these two areas of research together would prove stimulating. These presentations not only address the state of current work on gender and nonverbal behavior, but also suggest new avenues of investigation for those interested primarily in either topic. In other words, the questions that nonverbal communication researchers address when considering gender bring new directions to gender-related research and a like effect can be expected when the questions raised in gender studies are applied to research in nonverbal behavior. Dispersion of ideas may take another form as well. Both gender and nonverbal behavior research are notably interdisciplinary. Perhaps because of their pervasive nature, both topics have attracted the attention of a diversity of scholars. Most of the contributions in the present volume are by psychologists, but their intended audience is broad. Linguists, sociologists, and anthropologists are among those who share similar research interests. Moreover, the ideas presented here are of interest to practitioners as well as scholars. From corporations to clinics, people are interested in the subtle expression and negotiation of sex roles through nonverbal communication.

Diana Bilimoria & Xiangfen Liang, 2012
"Women faculty's participation in academic science and engineering is critical for future US global competitiveness, yet their underrepresentation particularly in senior positions remains a widespread problem. To overcome persistent institutional resistance and barriers to change, the NSF ADVANCE institutional transformation initiative, instituted in 2001, seeks to increase the workforce participation of women faculty in academic science and engineering through systematic institutional transformation. This book assesses the equity, diversity and inclusion outcomes of the changes underway at 19 universities. It provides a comprehensive, stand-alone description of successful approaches to increase the recruitment, advancement and retention of women faculty throughout the academic career pipeline. The findings show that targeted institutional transformation at these 19 U.S. universities has resulted in significant increases in women faculty's workforce participation, as well as improved gender equity and inclusion. Analyses by discipline show that the greatest changes have occurred within engineering and natural science disciplines at these universities. Yet the results also point to the overall continued underrepresentation of women faculty in academic science and engineering at the nation's research universities. A framework of organizational change is derived to serve as a template to academic and other organizations seeking transformation to enhance gender equity, diversity and inclusion"-- Provided by publisher.

Galina Hale & Tali Regev, 2014
We analyze the gender composition of PhD students and faculty of ten of the top U.S. economics departments over 20 years.•A higher share of female faculty is correlated with a higher share of female students graduating 6 years later.•Using IV analysis we find evidence of a causal effect of the female faculty share on the female student share.•The IV is the simulated lagged number of males leaving the department, calculated using individual faculty data. Analyzing university faculty and graduate students data for ten of the top U.S. economics departments between 1987 and 2007, we find persistent differences in the gender compositions of both faculty and graduate students across departments. There is a positive correlation between the share of female faculty and the share of women in the PhD class graduating six years later. Using instrumental variable analysis, we find robust evidence that this relation is causal. These results contribute to our understanding of the persistent under-representation of women in economics, as well as for the persistent segregation of women in the labor force.

Shelley J CORRELL, Stephen BENARD, & In PAIK, 2007
A laboratory experiment evaluated application materials for a pair of same-gender equally qualified job candidates who differed on parental status. It is found that mothers penalized on a host of measures, which includes perceived competence and recommended starting salary.

Rhea E Steinpreis, Katie A Anders, & Dawn Ritzke, 1999
The purpose of this study was to determine someof the factors that influence outside reviewers andsearch committee members when they are reviewingcurricula vitae, particularly with respect to the gender of the name on the vitae. The participants inthis study were 238 male and female academicpsychologists who listed a university address in the1997 Directory of the American PsychologicalAssociation. They were each sent one of four versions of acurriculum vitae (i.e., female job applicant, male jobapplicant, female tenure candidate, and male tenurecandidate), along with a questionnaire and aself-addressed stamped envelope. All the curricula vitaeactually came from a real-life scientist at twodifferent stages in her career, but the names werechanged to traditional male and female names. Althoughan exclusively between-groups design was used to avoidsparking genderconscious responding, the resultsindicate that the participants were clearly able todistinguish between the qualifications of the jobapplicants versus the tenure candidates, as evidenced bysuggesting higher starting salaries, increasedlikelihood of offering the tenure candidates a job,granting them tenure, and greater respect for theirteaching, research, and service records. Both men andwomen were more likely to vote to hire a male jobapplicant than a female job applicant with an identicalrecord. Similarly, both sexes reported that the male job applicant had done adequate teaching,research, and service experience compared to the femalejob applicant with an identical record. In contrast,when men and women examined the highly competitive curriculum vitae of the real-life scientist whohad gotten early tenure, they were equally likely totenure the male and female tenure candidates and therewas no difference in their ratings of their teaching, research, and service experience. There was nosignificant main effect for the quality of theinstitution or professional rank on selectivity inhiring and tenuring decisions. The results of this study indicate a gender bias for both men and womenin preference for male job applicants.

Christine Logel, Gregory M Walton, Steven J Spencer,Emma C Iserman, William von Hippel, Amy E Bell, & Charles M Judd, 2009
Social identity threat is the notion that one of a person's many social identities may be at risk of being devalued in a particular context ( C. M. Steele, S. J. Spencer, & J. Aronson, 2002 ). The authors suggest that in domains in which women are already negatively stereotyped, interacting with a sexist man can trigger social identity threat, undermining women's performance. In Study 1, male engineering students who scored highly on a subtle measure of sexism behaved in a dominant and sexually interested way toward an ostensible female classmate. In Studies 2 and 3, female engineering students who interacted with such sexist men, or with confederates trained to behave in the same way, performed worse on an engineering test than did women who interacted with nonsexist men. Study 4 replicated this finding and showed that women's underperformance did not extend to an English test, an area in which women are not negatively stereotyped. Study 5 showed that interacting with sexist men leads women to suppress concerns about gender stereotypes, an established mechanism of stereotype threat. Discussion addresses implications for social identity threat and for women's performance in school and at work.

Donald Jr. Mitchell, Charlana Simmons, & Lindsay A. Greyerbiehl, 2014
Intersectionality is a term coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989. A scholar of law, critical race theory, and Black feminist thought, Crenshaw used intersectionality to explain the experiences of Black women who – because of the intersections of race, gender, and class – are exposed to exponential forms of marginalization and oppression. Intersectionality & Higher Education documents and expands upon Crenshaw’s ideas within the context of U.S. higher education. The text includes theoretical and conceptual chapters on intersectionality; empirical research using intersectionality frameworks; and chapters focusing on intersectional practices. The volume may prove beneficial for graduate programs in ethnic studies, higher education, sociology, student affairs, and women and gender studies alike.

Allison K. Shaw & Daniel E. Stanton, 2012
Identification of the causes underlying the under-representation of women and minorities in academia is a source of ongoing concern and controversy. This is a critical issue in ensuring the openness and diversity of academia; yet differences in personal experiences and interpretations have mired it in controversy. We construct a simple model of the academic career that can be used to identify general trends, and separate the demographic effects of historical differences from ongoing biological or cultural gender differences. We apply the model to data on academics collected by the National Science Foundation (USA) over the past three decades, across all of science and engineering, and within six disciplines (agricultural and biological sciences, engineering, mathematics and computer sciences, physical sciences, psychology, and social sciences). We show that the hiring and retention of women in academia have been affected by both demographic inertia and gender differences, but that the relative influence of gender differences appears to be dwindling for most disciplines and career transitions. Our model enables us to identify the two key non-structural bottlenecks restricting female participation in academia: choice of undergraduate major and application to faculty positions. These transitions are those in greatest need of detailed study and policy development.

Ekaterina Netchaeva, Maryam Kouchaki, & Leah D. Sheppard, 2015
Across three studies, we investigate men’s reactions to women in superior roles. Drawing from precarious manhood theory, we hypothesize that when a woman occupies a superior organizational role, men in subordinate positions experience threat, which leads them to behave more assertively toward her and advocate for themselves. In Studies 1 and 2, we demonstrate that men feel more threatened (relative to women) by women in superior roles (relative to men in superior roles) and, as a result, engage in more assertive behaviors toward these women. In Study 3, we investigate a boundary condition to this effect and demonstrate that a woman in a superior role who displays qualities associated with administrative agency (e.g., directness, proactivity) rather than ambitious agency (e.g., self-promotion, power-seeking) elicits less assertive behavior from men. We conclude by discussing implications as well as directions for future research.

Christine Wenneras & Agnes Wold, 1997
t is very hard for peer reviewers to judge scientific merit without reference to gender, according to research based on the peer-review system of the Swedish Medical Council. Peer reviewers tend to over-estimate the achievements of male scientists and under-estimate those of female scientists. They regard female scientists as being particularly deficient in scientific competence, which is generally seen as directly related to the number and quality of scientific publications of each applicant. This research indicates that there is an urgent need to develop a peer-review system which takes the weaknesses of human nature into account.

Robert T Hitlan, Rebecca J Cliffton, & M. Catherine DeSoto, 2006
Research examining the nature and consequences of social exclusion indicates that such behavior is multifaceted and has deleterious effects on the intended targets. However, relatively little research has specifically assessed the impact of such behavior on employees who perceive of themselves as being excluded within their place of work. Even less has examined gender differences in relation to exclusionary behavior. The current research investigated the moderating effect of gender on the relation between perceived exclusion at work and work-related attitudes and psychological health. Participants included 223 working students (64 men and 159 women). Hierarchical moderated regression analyses on work attitudes (supervisor satisfaction, coworker satisfaction) and psychological health supported initial predictions. At higher levels of perceived exclusion men indicated lower satisfaction and psychological health compared to women. Findings are discussed in terms of potential workplace implications and limitations of the current research.

Eboni G Price, Aysegul Gozu, David E Kern, Neil R Powe, Gary S Wand, Sherita Golden, & Lisa A Cooper, 2005
BACKGROUND: Ethnic diversity among physicians may be linked to improved access and quality of care for minorities. Academic medical institutions are challenged to increase representation of ethnic minorities among health professionals. OBJECTIVES: To explore the perceptions of physician faculty regarding the following: (1) the institution’s cultural diversity climate and (2) facilitators and barriers to success and professional satisfaction in academic medicine within this context. DESIGN: Qualitative study using focus groups and semi-structured interviews. PARTICIPANTS: Nontenured physicians in the tenure track at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. APPROACH: Focus groups and interviews were audio-taped, transcribed verbatim, and reviewed for thematic content in a 3-stage independent review/adjudication process. RESULTS: Study participants included 29 faculty representing 9 clinical departments, 4 career tracks, and 4 ethnic groups. In defining cultural diversity, faculty noted visible (race/ethnicity, foreign-born status, gender) and invisible (religion, sexual orientation) dimensions. They believe visible dimensions provoke bias and cumulative advantages or disadvantages in the workplace. Minority and foreign-born faculty report ethnicity-based disparities in recruitment and subtle manifestations of bias in the promotion process. Minority and majority faculty agree that ethnic differences in prior educational opportunities lead to disparities in exposure to career options, and qualifications for and subsequent recruitment to training programs and faculty positions. Minority faculty also describe structural barriers (poor retention efforts, lack of mentorship) that hinder their success and professional satisfaction after recruitment. To effectively manage the diversity climate, our faculty recommended 4 strategies for improving the psychological climate and structural diversity of the institution. CONCLUSIONS: Soliciting input from faculty provides tangible ideas regarding interventions to improve an institution’s diversity climate.

Scott E Carrell, Marianne E Page, & James E West, 2010
Why aren't there more women in science? This paper begins to shed light on this question by exploiting data from the U.S. Air Force Academy, where students are randomly assigned to professors for a wide variety of mandatory standardized courses.We focus on the role of professor gender. Our results suggest that although professor gender has little impact on male students, it has a powerful effect on female students' performance in math and science classes, and high-performing female students' likelihood of taking future math and science courses, and graduating with a STEM degree. The estimates are largest for students whose SAT math scores are in the top 5% of the national distribution. The gender gap in course grades and STEM majors is eradicated when high-performing female students are assigned to female professors in mandatory introductory math and science coursework.

editors Paula A. Johnson, Sheila E. Widnall, & Frazier F. Benya, 2018
"Over the last few decades, research, activity, and funding has been devoted to improving the recruitment, retention, and advancement of women in the fields of science, engineering,and medicine. In recent years the diversity of those participating in these fields, particularly the participation of women, has improved and there are significantly more women entering careers and studying science, engineering, and medicine than ever before. However, as women increasingly enter these fields they face biases and barriers and it is not surprising that sexual harassment is one of these barriers. Over thirty years the incidence of sexual harassment in different industries has held steady, yet now more women are in the workforce and in academia, and in the fields of science, engineering, and medicine (as students and faculty) and so more women are experiencing sexual harassment as they work and learn. Over the last several years, revelations of the sexual harassment experienced by women in the workplace and in academic settings have raised urgent questions about the specific impact of this discriminatory behavior on women and the extent to which it is limiting their careers. Sexual Harassment of Women explores the influence of sexual harassment in academia on the career advancement of women in the scientific, technical, and medical workforce. This report reviews the research on the extent to which women in the fields of science, engineering, and medicine are victimized by sexual harassment and examines the existing information on the extent to which sexual harassment in academia negatively impacts the recruitment, retention, and advancement of women pursuing scientific, engineering, technical, and medical careers. It also identifies and analyzes the policies, strategies and practices that have been the most successful in preventing and addressing sexual harassment in these settings"--Back cover.

Lillian MacNell, Adam Driscoll, & Andrea N Hunt, 2015
Student ratings of teaching play a significant role in career outcomes for higher education instructors. Although instructor gender has been shown to play an important role in influencing student ratings, the extent and nature of that role remains contested. While difficult to separate gender from teaching practices in person, it is possible to disguise an instructor’s gender identity online. In our experiment, assistant instructors in an online class each operated under two different gender identities. Students rated the male identity significantly higher than the female identity, regardless of the instructor’s actual gender, demonstrating gender bias. Given the vital role that student ratings play in academic career trajectories, this finding warrants considerable attention.

Lillian MacNell, Adam Driscoll, & Andrea N Hunt, 2015
Student ratings of teaching play a significant role in career outcomes for higher education instructors. Although instructor gender has been shown to play an important role in influencing student ratings, the extent and nature of that role remains contested. While difficult to separate gender from teaching practices in person, it is possible to disguise an instructor’s gender identity online. In our experiment, assistant instructors in an online class each operated under two different gender identities. Students rated the male identity significantly higher than the female identity, regardless of the instructor’s actual gender, demonstrating gender bias. Given the vital role that student ratings play in academic career trajectories, this finding warrants considerable attention.

Alice H Eagly, 2016
In an ideal world, social science research would provide a strong basis for advocacy and social policy. However, advocates sometimes misunderstand or even ignore scientific research in pursuit of their goals, especially when research pertains to controversial questions of social inequality. To illustrate the chasm that can develop between research findings and advocates' claims, this article addresses two areas: (a) the effects of the gender diversity of corporate boards of directors on firms' financial performance and (b) the effects of the gender and racial diversity of workgroups on group performance. Despite advocates' insistence that women on boards enhance corporate performance and that diversity of task groups enhances their performance, research findings are mixed, and repeated meta-analyses have yielded average correlational findings that are null or extremely small. Therefore, social scientists should (a) conduct research to identify the conditions under which the effects of diversity are positive or negative and (b) foster understanding of the social justice gains that can follow from diversity. Unfortunately, promulgation of false generalizations about empirical findings can impede progress in both of these directions. Rather than ignoring or furthering distortions of scientific knowledge to fit advocacy goals, scientists should serve as honest brokers who communicate consensus scientific findings to advocates and policy makers in an effort to encourage exploration of evidence-based policy options.

Mamta Motwani Accapadi, 2007
This article focuses on the tension that arises as the result of the intersection of social identities, namely gender and race. Through examination of a case study, I consider the ways in which White women benefit from White privilege through their interactions with Women of Color using the Privileged Identity Exploration Model as the tool for analysis.

Virginia Valian, 1998
Virginia Valian uses concepts and data from psychology, sociology, economics, and biology to explain the disparity in the professional advancement of men and women.Why do so few women occupy positions of power and prestige? Virginia Valian uses concepts and data from psychology, sociology, economics, and biology to explain the disparity in the professional advancement of men and women. According to Valian, men and women alike have implicit hypotheses about gender differences—gender schemas—that create small sex differences in characteristics, behaviors, perceptions, and evaluations of men and women. Those small imbalances accumulate to advantage men and disadvantage women. The most important consequence of gender schemas for professional life is that men tend to be overrated and women underrated.Valian's goal is to make the invisible factors that retard women's progress visible, so that fair treatment of men and women will be possible. The book makes its case with experimental and observational data from laboratory and field studies of children and adults, and with statistical documentation on men and women in the professions. The many anecdotal examples throughout provide a lively counterpoint.

The UK Statistics Guide on Women in Science, Engineering, Technology and the Built Environment (SET) provides detailed data analysis using a conceptual framework for gender segregation in SET. The Guide aims to aid future benchmarking and monitoring of progress against a number of indicators from the areas of secondary and higher education, vocational training, employment and gender pay, leadership and public engagement.

Gillian Kirkup, Anna Zalevski, Takao Maruyama, & Isma Batool, 2010
The UK Statistics Guide on Women in Science, Engineering, Technology and the Built Environment (SET) provides detailed data analysis using a conceptual framework for gender segregation in SET. The Guide aims to aid future benchmarking and monitoring of progress against a number of indicators from the areas of secondary and higher education, vocational training, employment and gender pay, leadership and public engagement. It illustrates the existence, even in 2009, of the gender and SET ‘leaky pipeline’ by showing where, in SET education and employment, the biggest attrition of women occurs, and how the participation of women has changed in recent years. It presents a complex picture, demonstrating not only the well known under-representation of women in SET, but also a multilayered interplay between gender and other factors such as ethnicity and disability, types of occupations and industries, and educational and employment career stages. This Guide is a reference document and we hope it will enable practitioners, policy makers, employers, researchers and activists in gender and equality to review the current situation, and identify where the strengths, gaps and challenges lie.

Despite making up nearly half of the U.S. workforce, women are still vastly underrepresented in the science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) workforce.

Bernice Resnick Sandier, 1991
Although much has been written about how teachers differentially communicate with female and male students, less research has been done on the treatment of faculty by students. This essay presents a review of recent research on the different ways in which male and female students communicate with women and men faculty. The essay concludes with recommendations women faculty may implement to reduce behaviors that create and sustain a "chilly" classroom climate.

Stephen J. Ceci, Donna K. Ginther, Shulamit Kahn, & Wendy M. Williams, 2014
In this monograph, we undertake extensive life-course analyses comparing the trajectories of women and men in math-intensive fields with those of their counterparts in non-math-intensive fields in which women are close to parity with or even exceed the number of men.

Stephen J Ceci, 2018
Although women are underrepresented in the most mathematically intensive fields, the gender gap in these fields has narrowed over the past 2 decades. In my E. L. Thorndike address I summarized the temporal trends in sex differences for 8 fields and considered factors that drive both the underrepresentation of women and its recent narrowing. I reviewed evidence concerning sex differences in mathematical and spatial aptitude, biases in hiring, funding, publishing, remuneration, and promotion, and gendered preferences. I conclude that the most important causes of underrepresentation appear to occur before women matriculate in college and are concerned with ability-related beliefs, stereotypes, and preferences starting in early elementary school, which by the end of high school have reduced the size of the potential pool. By the time women reach graduate school, there is evidence that they are as successful as their male counterparts in being interviewed and hired for tenure-track positions, funded, and published.

Josephine Beoku-Betts, 2005
This paper examines the relevance of cultural diversity in studies of women in scientific professions. It is based on a qualitative study of 18 African women in academic scientific careers and representing several English-speaking countries. I investigate how women who seek and gain entry into academic scientific careers are positioned in the academic hierarchy and whether their rate of progress is impeded by exclusionary practices in their professional fields. I also examine whether other interacting circumstances such as development issues, colonial legacies, and the influence of patriarchal states and cultures create somewhat different types of constraints and options for women in academic settings. I address these concerns by investigating the following issues: (1) early career experiences (academic, political, and economic concerns, (2) response from important others (professional colleagues, administrators, and students, (3) reflections on career barriers (faculty rank, research productivity, and perceptions of job satisfaction).

Emma Kerr, 2018
"The university was aware of the efforts to achieve a more diverse cohort of attendees for the March 2 event, and has encouraged the organizers to take additional steps to do so in the future." "If you have an agenda for your conference that somehow manages not to be attractive to a single woman you ask — and not just women, but any person of color in a discipline that has, relatively speaking, a healthy number of women in it and people of minority backgrounds — there might be something wrong with your conference," she said. During his acceptance speech for the 2016 Philip Merrill Award for Outstanding Contributions to Liberal Arts Education, presented by the American Council of Trustees and Alumni, he described a structural shift in the field, with an increasing number of historians who specialize in women and gender, cultural history, and the history of race and ethnicity.